Thursday, January 21, 2010
Blog Navigation
Please begin with the blog post entitled "Case Study: Roman Castra and American Quonset" and then read the posts backwards. These posts compliment the story that is presented in the keynote presentation. Posts made before contains repeated information as well as other information which was not included the final story, as the blog was used as a store of information.
Wednesday, January 20, 2010
Bibliography
Albrecht, Donald. " World War II and the American Dream: How Wartime Building Changed a Nation ." Edited by Joel Davidson. The Public Historian, (University of California Press), 1995: 140-142. About the information provided by an exhibit on Quonset huts.
Took some drawings and pictures from the site. It was useful to gather further information and analysis on the overall use of the quonset hut and how important it actually was.
Cavazzi, Franco. "The Founding of Rome." 07/04/2007.http://www.roman-empire.net (accessed 12/10/2010).
Used for the story of how Rome was founded, also took some pictures from the site. Also lots of information about the Roman army ranks and structure.
Fabricius, Ernst. "Some Notes on Polybius's Description of Roman CampsSociety for the Promotion of Roman Studies 22. 1 (1932), [78-87], http://www.jstor.org/stable/297090. (accessed January 20, 2010). A supplement to Military Antiquities of Rome in North Britain, providing more information about what lay within the ramparts of the castra.
Favro, Diane. "Roman LatrinesUC Berkeley, Places, College of Environmental Design Places 11. 1 (1997), [1-3], http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/4qg2k5fn. (accessed January 20, 2010). Information on the shape and cultural implication of latrines in Rome, the shape given was cross referenced to William Roy's work and identified as the same.
Gelbert, Doug. "Quonset Hut building: the timeless design." 2009.http://beta.essortment.com/21193-quonset-hut-building-timeless-design.html (accessed 11/10/2010).
Found basic background information about the quonset hut. It was the first site seen and thus it provided a foundation for further research. Took the term: “American ingenuity”.
Josephus, Flavius, Translated by William Whiston. "The Wars of the Jews or History of the Destruction of Jerusalem The Project Gutenberg EBook (2009), http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2850/2850-h/2850-h.htm. (accessed January 20, 2010). This was the closest source to a firsthand account of what occurred at the siege of Masada, a brief but initially valuable description of roman castra was given.
Julie Decker and Chris Chiei, Quonset Hut: Metal Living for a Modern Age (New York, NY: Princeton Architectural Press, 2005) , 21.
The authors Decker and Chiei explain the history of the Quonset hut from its origins in the design of the British Nissen hut, to its role in and after World War II. The authors place the Quonset hut not only in the theater of military conflict but also in a much larger cultural and social context. The authors argue that the Quonset hut has become a symbol of America in much the same way that Coca-cola has.
Hammond,Mason. The City in the Ancient World. 1 ed. Lester J. Bartson. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1972.
Found information pertaining to the foundations of Rome and the reasons and precursors to Roman city evolution.
Haynes, Theresa. "It Was Hot on the Island." The American Journal of Nursing 44, no. 11 (November 1954): 1058-1064.
Information about Quonset huts in the South Pacific.
Hilde, John R . "Imperial Roman Army Reforms." http://ezinearticles.com/?Imperial-Roman-Army-Reforms&id=1065305(accessed 17/10/2010).
Used to find information about the Roman army reforms and why certain reforms happen.
History Net Group, "The Romans." 2000.http://www.historyonthenet.com/Romans/roman_army.htm (accessed 10/01/2010).
Found information about Roman military structure and divisions within that structure.
Illustrated History of the Roman Empire. “The Layout of a Roman Legion's Camp.” http://www.roman- empire.net/army/camp2.html (accessed January 12, 2010). This Diagrams graphically represents, in plan, the layout of a Roman Castrum.
Illustrated History of the Roman Empire. “The Roman Army.” http://www.roman- empire.net/army/army.html (accessed January 9, 2010). This article explains, in detail, the leadership and organization of personal in the Roman army. It also explains the Roman style of fighting, the formation of troops, and strategies involved. The evolution of the Roman legion is also explored. The reforms by Marius, Cesaer, Augustus, Trajan, and Hadrian.
Imber , Margaret . "Roman Civilization." http://abacus.bates.edu/~mimber/Rciv/soldier.htm (accessed 01/15/2010).
Took information for the blog, very informative site. Made by a professor for her class.
Masada National Park. http://www.parks.org.il/BuildaGate5/portals/parks/imagesFILES/Advanced1118904599.pdf (accessed January 11, 2010).
Information provided by the Israeli government about Masada. Contains the history of the occupation of Masada, the construction of the West and North palaces as well as detailed information about the Siege of Masada. Contained a useful labeled map of the present site.
NationMaster.com. “Roman Camp.” http://www.statemaster.com/encyclopedia/Roman-camp (accessed January 9, 2010). This article goes into deep explanations of the construction of the Roman camps. The camps were carried with the marching army. A site would be chosen and measurement would start in the center. Metatores and decempedae were tools used to measure. The construction started with the base. The wall was erected and fortified. Then watch towers were setup. There was a intervallum or clear space to protect soldiers from missile weapons. The mains street was the via principalis.
Orr, John, interview by Katherine Kovalcik. Interview With a Member of the United States Army (January 16, 2010).
Interview of a Navy Seal pilot-in-training with one year of flight school left. Provided valuable information about the structure of the current structure of the U.S. Army structure and base organization.
"Polar Inertia." Quonset Huts. May 2004. http://www.polarinertia.com/may04/quonset01.htm (accessed January 12, 2010).
Source provided information about the history of the Quonset hut and its dimensions along with many useful photos. It also described what happened to the Quonset Huts after WWII.
Ramsay, William. "Castra." 02/12/2009.http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Castra.html (accessed 12/10/2010).
Great site, find information about various castras. Found information about the geometry and symmetry of the castra. Also lots of terminology.
Reader, John. Cities. 1 ed. London, England: William Heinemann, 2004.
Took basic background information about the first city. Also found basic ideas and ideals about the first cities.
Roy ,William. Military Antiquities of Rome in North Britain. 1st ed. London: printed by W. Bulmer and Co. and sold at the apartments of the Society; and by Messrs. White, Robson, Nicol, Leigh and Sotheby, Brown, and Egerton, 1793. This source offered valuable insight into castrametation during the times of Polybius and Hyginus.
Rykwert,Joseph. The Idea of a Town: The Anthropology of Urban Form in Rome, Italy, and the Ancient World. Cambridge, MAS: The MIT Press, 1988. Useful information about the construction and history behind the Roman castrum. History of the city was useful as well.
Scaruffi, Piero. "A time-line of the Roman empire." 1999.http://www.scaruffi.com/politics/romans.html (accessed 12/10/2010). Used as reference for dates concerning Rome and Roman military. Not extremely useful by very handing to associate events with dates, certain time periods, and certain individuals.
SPQR Online. “Res Militaris.” http://library.thinkquest.org/26602/romancamp.htm (accessed January 7, 2010). This article explains that the Roman camp was a technique vital in the success of the Roman miltary. The camp was a mobile city that the Romans used to easily control their surroundings and conditions they faced. It also explains the construction of the camp. It was easily built in about six hours. It talks about the shape and setup of the camp. The square shape, entrances at the midpoint of each side, the Via Principia and Via Praetoria serving as roads in the camp.
Theriault, Chad, interview by Katherine Kovalcik. (January 15, 2010).
Interview With a Graduate of the United States Naval Academy. Valuable information provided about the structure and tactics of the U.S. military.
ThinkQuest. “The Roman Army.” http://library.thinkquest.org/22866/English/Leger.html (accessed January 7, 2010). This article presents the history of the Roman army. The draft of citizens to the army and the evolution of the Roman army into a standing army to fend off barbarians. It also explains the organization of the legion into cohorts, centuria, contubernium. The use of auxiliary troops and their status change after serving in the army. It talks briefly about the main setup of the roman fort and accompanies this with a diagram. Finally, the life of a Roman soldier is reviled. From his enrolment to his promotion, and his equipment.
Trautman, Robin. The Web Chronology Project. Edited by Donna Thompson. http://www.thenagain.info/WebChron/middleEast/Masada.html (accessed January 8, 2010). Information about the history of Masada.
U.S. Army, "The Official Homepage of the United States Army : Operational Unit Diagrams." http://www.army.mil/info/organization/unitsandcommands/oud/ (accessed 01 12 2010). Organization and structure of the United States Army.
Vroma, A Virtual Community for Teaching and Learning Classics. “The Roman Army in the Late Republic and Early Empire.” http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/romanarmy.html (accessed January 7, 2010). This article explains the setup of the Roman military. The set of each legion, its numbers, function, structure. The roles of Legate, Tribunes, Centurions, Cohorts in the army are explained. The usual background of people in these roles and the organization of power.
Victori, The Roman Military Tools of War. “Camps.” http://romanmilitary.net/tools/camp (accessed January 9, 2010). This article talks about the construction of the camps. Soldiers would start digging a trench, then the pike wall would be erected, and towers could be build for more permanent camps. They could then later be modified into a more permanent camp or into a city.
Wikipedia contributors, "Castra," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castra(accessed Jan 19, 2010).
Very usuful, found great information concerning almost every aspect of the castra. Also took some pictures from the site.
Quinata, Nicholas. Quonset Huts. October 18, 2009. http://guampedia.com/quonset-huts/ (accessed January 9, 2010). Information regarding Quonset huts in tropical climate was a good resource on this website.
Mornement, Adam, and Simon Holloway. Corrugated Iron: Building on the Frontier. Francis Lincoln ltd, 2007. This book offered useful information regarding the Quonset Hut's design and role in WWII.
Cyber Graphics, Inc. Three Types of Steel Buildings. http://www.steelbuildings.org/Building_Descriptions.html (accessed January 7, 2010). Basic information regarding the structure of the typical Quonset Hut was used from this website.
Mike Hondel. http://www.quonsethuts.org/index.htm (accessed January 9, 2010). This website was a valuable resource for information about the history, structure, and uses of the Quonset Hut.
Tuesday, January 19, 2010
American Army: Structure Analysis
The largest division of the American Army is the Field Army. It is commanded by Generals and consists of two to five corps. The Army is then further divided into Corps; Divisions; Brigades; Battalions; Companies; Platoons and Squads.1
A Corps is made up of two to five Divisions. A Lieutenant General who is assisted by a Command Sergeant Major and extensive Corps staff commands it. A Corps usually contains 20 000 to 40 000 soldiers who make up a deployable level of command that is required in order to synchronize and maintain combat operations.2 The Corps provide the framework for multinational military operations with command, control, and logistical support.
A Division consists of three tactical maneuver Brigades and a division base of combat support and combat service support elements. These are all under the control of a Major General who is assisted by two Brigadier Generals or One Stars. These Brigadier Generals act as Assistant Division Commanders and are in charge of Maneuvers and Support. A Division is made up of 10 000 to 16 000 soldiers who perform major tactical operations.2 A Division is capable of conducting sustained battles and offensive engagements. Five sub-divisions categorize it. These are Light Infantry; Mechanized Infantry; Armor; Airborne and Air Assault.
A Brigade is made up of three or more Battalions. The 1 500 to 3 200 soldiers in a Brigade are all under the control of a Colonel or Brigadier General.2 A Brigade is a large unit that can be employed on independent or semi-independent operations. In combat operations, Infantry, Armor and Cavalry Brigades all have a Field Artillery Battalion, Engineer Battalion and Combat Service Support Battalion.
A Battalion consists of three to five Companies. These are commanded by a Lieutenant Colonel who is assisted by a Command Sergeant Major. A Battalion holds 300 to 1 000 soldiers.2 This appendage of the army is both tactically and administratively self-sufficient and is capable of independent operations in battle.
A Company is made up of three to four Platoons that are commanded by a Captain assisted by a First Sergeant. It contains 60 to 200 soldiers who have 15 to 25 vehicles and form a cohesive tactical unit that performs battlefield functions by itself.2 A Company is capable of receiving and controlling additional combat, combat support or service support elements.
A Platoon comprises three to four Squads. It contains 16 to 44 soldiers in total who are commanded by a Lieutenant assisted by a Platoon Sergeant. These soldiers form a basic combat unit that is capable of maneuvering in the conduct of combat operations.
A Squad is composed of four to ten soldiers. A Staff Sergeant commands these soldiers. However, in infantry, a Squad is made up of nine soldiers and a squad leader. Generally, Mechanized Infantry Squads are each assigned to a tactical vehicle.
The American Army also has many additional unit types. These consist of groups such as Armored Cavalry Regiments; Engineer Brigades; Medical Brigades; Quartermaster Groups and Transportation Groups.
There are six main branches of the Army. These are the Infantry Branch; the Armor Branch; the Artillery Branch; the Air Defense Artillery Branch; the Aviation Branch and the Engineer Branch.
There are also divisions of the army which have non-combat-oriented responsibilities. Ordinance division members are responsible for munitions and maintenance while Quartermaster division members are responsible for food supplies, laundry, and cleanliness. Medical division members are responsible for the oral and physical health of the soldiers and Signal division members are the experts in communications. The Intel division is responsible for military intelligence while the MP division provides law enforcement for
In World War II, most enlisted soldiers received a salary of $23/month before 1943.3 After 1943, privates were offered $50/month. At the end of the war, most of the surviving soldiers were given a $250 discharge bonus.3 If veterans wished to attend post-secondary education, the United States Government paid it for. Wounded veterans also received compensation for their disabilities.
However, many of the soldiers who were enlisted were drafted. This was thanks to Grenville Clarke who proposed the first peacetime draft legislation in 1940, which was passed and renewed by Congress in 1941.3 These soldiers were not well trained by today’s standards, and were by no means professional soldiers. Many eligible men did not want to join the army and this prompted the “Draft Dodgers” movement of men who illegally immigrated to Canada to avoid being drafted.
Notes
1. Theriault, Chad, interview by Katherine Kovalcik. (January 15, 2010).
2. U.S. Army, "The Official Homepage of the United States Army : Operational Unit Diagrams." http://www.army.mil/info/organization/unitsandcommands/oud/ (accessed 01 12 2010).
3. Orr, John, interview by Katherine Kovalcik. Interview With a Member of the United States Army (January 16, 2010).
Quonset Hut: Camp Layout
Quonset huts are laid out in a variety of ways in American camps. In areas at high risk of aerial attacks, for example, the Adak Island camp in Alaska, huts were scattered far apart from each other creating a very irregular layout. The reason for having an inconsistent layout was to make it impossible for a plane firing from above to make more than one hit in a single pass.1 In such situations, earth was piled at a slope of 15 degrees against the sides of huts to protect against the effects of hits at a distance. In some cases, addition protection against attack was added by having the entrance to the building slightly below ground or adding a barrier in front of the entrance.2
Where the main goal of the camp was strictly to house a large amount of enlists and officers, camps could be set up in regular rows, staggered rows or in an array. In this manner, a small amount of land could house a high concentration of people.
Notes:
2.Ibid.
Quonset Hut: Improvements and Modifications
Improvements and Redesigns
Improvements to the Huts at the level of manufacturing were ongoing. The manufactures were concerned with not only the construction of the huts in the factory and their performance on the field, but also with the method of transportation. Crating the T-Rib Quonsets huts originally “required twelve crates, which, even without the contents, weighed 3,212 pounds.” In contrast, a new crating process revealed to Admiral Morrell utilized eliminated all but three of the original twelve crates.1
The first major redesign of the Quonset introduced a new steel framing system as well as a new interior shape. The T-Rib was abandoned, and in its place the Stran-Steel system, “essentially two lightweight steel channels that are welded back to back to form an I-shaped member,” between which a serpentine shaped grooved allowed the use of friction held nails instead of bolts to be used. Stran-Steel’s framing system was lighter in weight compared to the T-Rib and faster to erect, and outperformed the T-Rib when field tested.2
In order to better make use of floor space, the roof Quonset was also redesigned to have a segmented arch instead of a full arch. This allowed equipment up to four feet tall to be placed next to walls without creating unusable floor space.3 However, when the production of Quonsets was handed completely from Fuller to Stran-Steel, the design was changed again. The design reverted back to the full arch, the sacrifices in floor space was justified by “the ease of fabrication and erection, its small size when crated (270-325 cubic feet versus the 450 cubic feet required for the [1st] Redesign), and lighter shipping weight.”4 This perfected version of the Quonset hut could be put up in one day by ten men with only hand tools, required no special skills to construct, and took less shipping space than canvas tents with wooden floors and frames when crated.4
T-Rib Quonset Hut - 16' x 36' and 16' x 20'. It was most closely designed to the Nissen Hut. Before being redesigned around 8200 huts were built.
Quonset Redesign - 16' x 36' and 24' x 60'. The new design included vertical 4 foot sidewalls for better use of space, and modified arch. Around 25000 Redesign huts were built.
Stran-Steel Quonset - 20' x 48' and 20' x 56'. The last major redesign in 1943 was less expensive, faster to built and easier to transport due to its light weight.
Erection of a Redesign hut.
Modifications
The simplicity of the Quonset Hut’s designs have allowed it to be successful in many climates. Although there are many different models of the structure, the same principles apply to each: the arc shape and efficient production, transport, assembly and disassembly.
Quonset Huts proved to be well suited to their military lives in tropical climates. The arc shape of the building and the lack of roof overhangs allowed the winds of tropical storms to pass over them without damaging them. The tendency to acquire high temperatures inside the small structures was combated by simply raising the huts off the ground with concrete blocks to encourage airflow beneath the structure. Raising the huts also aided in the case of floods, keeping the floor inside of the hut dry and above water. Unfortunately, the life span of the huts was short after the war ended because flying debris in Typhoons and corrosion from years of heavy tropical rain easily damaged the tin exterior of Quonset Huts.
On the other hand, the building was easily adapted to suit cold climates. The metal ribbing was substituted with wood to discourage the transfer of heat from inside to out. Adding an extra layer of building paper and flooring kept the interior from becoming damp. Because flooding was not an issue, ground could be piled against the sides of the Quonset hut to a height of 3 feet to protect the huts interior from the effect of a distant hit. The corrugated metal roofing was successful in allowing the snow to slide off the structure easily. In Alaska the Quonset hut was performed so well in its climate that many still exist there today.
The original Quonset huts were 16’ x 36’. Brandenberger’s team made different versions of the Quonset adapted for different purposes. Modifications include specific partitions and windows to suit different functions of the building, and adjustments in the form of ventilation and insulation to suit different climates. Forty-one design variations were made, “including a dispensary/surgical hut, a laboratory, laundry facility, pharmacy, dental facility, hospital ward, barbershop, morgue, guard house, and tailor shop […].”5
Quonsets were designed to be easily dismantled and rebuilt. However, it was often easier to transport them without dismantling the structure, since they were relatively light. They were transported in a variety of ways. One of the most ingenious methods was a sled system developed in Alaska. Quonsets were mounted on sled runners and transported to the destination. Once there, the runners can be returned or can remain on the Quonsets, turning the structures into mobile camps.6
Quonset hut on sled runners.
Notes
1. Julie Decker and Chris Chiei, Quonset Hut: Metal Living for a Modern Age (New York, NY: Princeton Architectural Press, 2005), 17, 19.
2. Decker and Chiei, 23, 24.
3. Decker and Chiei, 24.
4. Decker and Chiei, 13.
5. Decker and Chiei, 9.
6. Decker and Chiei, 9.
7. Decker and Chiei, 27.
Quonset Hut: Production and Construction
The production of Quonsets was aided by a number of industry giants, including Carnegie-Illnois Steel Corporation, Bethlehem Steel Company, Masonite Corporation, Kimberly-Clark Corporation, and Libby Owen Ford, which supplied materials in the form of steel, insulation, masonite, and shatter-proof panes.1 The demand for Quonsets was so large that it would have been impossible for Fuller to produce each component in house. Fuller, a contracting firm, has little experience in mass production. Eventually, the production of Quonsets were sub-contracted to Stran-Steel, a company which produced light-weight steel framing prior to World War II. After Stran-Steel’s proprietary steel beam system were adopted by Quonsets, Stran-Steel would shift its market entirely to the military.2 Since the speed at which Quonsets can be manufactured is a measure of its effectiveness, the role of the American industry in its success must be emphasized. As the case of the Quonset shows, the Americans were able to turn its substantial industrial powers into a war machine. The hundreds of thousands of Quonset units could not have possibly been produced by a single company. However, Fuller, a construction company, was able to produce Quonsets in such incredible numbers because it was able to source components such as steel members, insulation, and special glass panes from a highly developed industry.
Notes
1. Julie Decker and Chris Chiei, Quonset Hut: Metal Living for a Modern Age (New York, NY: Princeton Architectural Press, 2005) , 16.
2. Decker and Chiei, 19.
Quonset Hut: Born of Emergency
Responce to Emergency
On December 7, 1941, the Japanese military attacked Pearl Harbor, destroying much of the United States’ Pacific fleet. One day later, the United States declared war on Japan.1 The country was in a state of emergency. Alaska was perceived as a target for a Japanese invasion, and underwent a rapid process of militarization.2 The isolated territory, which was populated by about sixty thousand native Alaskans and non-natives before the war, absorbed nearly $3 billion military spending by the war’s end. 300,000 military personnel were stationed there, and three hundred military installations were constructed.3 The rapid response of the United States army could not have been possible without prefabricated structures such as the Quonset hut.
Design
The contract to build a base at naval Quonset Point was given to a partnership of George A. Fuller and Company and The Merritt-Chapman and Scott Corporation. Construction began on July 16, 1940. In March of 1941, when the base was near its completion, Admiral Ben Morrell, chief of the Bureau of Yard and Docks, discussed with representatives of Fuller and Scott the navy’s need for a prefabricated hut system to shelter troops abroad. The first shipment of huts needed to be ready by June 1.4 Fuller assembled an architectural team led by Otto Brandenberger to design the huts. According to other team members, Brandenberger, a swiss immigrant and graduate of the Zurich Technical Institute, contributed most to the design.5 In addition to instructing the team to use the British Nissen hut the starting point, the navy gave them two conditions for the hut design, “the new huts had to be arch shaped, for strength and deflection of shell fragments, and able to be quickly and simply assembled.”6 While the arch shape of the Nissen hut was imported to the Quonset hut, Brandeberger’s team made a number of design changes which made the hut easier and faster to erect as well as more comfortable to inhabit. According to Fuller, “The British had been on the right track but too many gadgets slowed erection; and with no insulation between inner and outer metal shells the Nissen huts were hot in the summer and cold in the winter.”7
Notes
Julie Decker and Chris Chiei, Quonset Hut: Metal Living for a Modern Age (New York, NY: Princeton Architectural Press, 2005) , 21.
2. Decker and Chiei, 32, 33.
3. Decker and Chiei, 31.
4. Decker and Chiei, 1-3.
5. Decker and Chiei, 4.
6. Decker and Chiei, 6.
6. Decker and Chiei, 6.
The Roman Soldier: A Study
The reason that Rome was able to conquer and defend themselves so well throughout the ages was because of their army. The Roman army was on of the fiercest in antiquity. The men who made up the army were professional soldiers who were fighting to protect the land they owned or to gain land and money.1 They were highly skilled and in always in peak physical condition.
The army consisted of men between the ages of 17 and 46 and were chosen based and their wealth (they had to buy their own equipment) and the physical stature. The only men that would be exempt from duty would be veterans (16 campaigns for infantry and 10 for cavalry) the extremely poor, and the unfit. To not be chosen for the army was seen as a dishonor and a disgrace.
The blue which held the Roman army together was the loyalty ensured by an oath. Each solider would have to swear the sacramentum which not only changed his life from a citizen to a soldier but also subjected to him to every order and command of the general without question.The oath bound each soldier to the will of the general. They would have no fear of killing, or dying. They had no conscience, all emotion would be taken out, they essentially removed themselves from the normal realm of Roman society and became a tool for the army to use. The only means to release yourself from the sacramentum would be death or demobilization. The army was expected to march up to 20 miles a day with their entire palette of equipments: weapons, armor, supplies, tent, sleeping gear, everything they needed. They were also expected to stay with the army for 25 years. After this commitment you would be given land and money but also be highly regarded and revered in the community because a service to Rome meant not only a service to the empire, but also a service to the Gods.
The army set-up had the same strict order as the rest of Roman society. 5000 legionnaires (Roman citizens and the basic unit of army) forms a legion. Each legion was then broken down into centuries of 80 men who were led by a centurion, these would then be broken down to groups for various jobs. The strict format the the army followed allowed for an effective and potent killing machine to be produced and was one of the reasons of Rome's success.
Sources
1. http://www.roman-empire.net/army/army.html
2. http://www.historyonthenet.com/Romans/roman_army.htm
3. http://abacus.bates.edu/~mimber/Rciv/soldier.htm
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